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A GIS is a tool for making and using spatial information. Among the many definitions of GIS, we choose: A GIS is a computer-based system to aid in the collection, maintenance, storage, analysis, output, and distribution of spatial data and information. When used wisely, GIS can help us live healthier, wealthier, and safer lives. GIS and spatial analyses are concerned with the quantitative location of important features, as well as properties and attributes of those features. Mount Everest is in Asia, Timbuktu is in Mali, and the cruise ship Titanic is at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean. A GIS quantifies these locations by recording their coordinates, numbers that describe the position of these features on Earth. The GIS may also be used to record the height of Mount Everest, the population of Pierre, or the depth of the Titanic, as well as any other defining characteristics of each spatial feature. Each GIS user may decide what features are important, and what attributes are worth recording. For example, forests are important to us. They protect our water supplies, yield wood, harbor wildlife, and provide space to recreate. We are concerned about the level of harvest, the adjacent land use, pollution from nearby industries, or when and where forests burn. Informed management requires at a minimum knowledge of all these related factors, and, perhaps above all, the spatial arrangement of these factors. Buffer strips near rivers may protect water supplies, clearings may prevent the spread of fire, and polluters downwind may not harm our forests while polluters upwind might. A GIS helps us analyze these spatial relationships and interactions. A GIS is also particularly useful at displaying spatial data and reporting the results of spatial analysis. In many instances GIS is the only way to solve spatially-related problems. An Introduction to GIS. Introduction. What Is a GIS? GIS: A Ubiquitous Tool. Why Do We Need GIS? GIS in Action. GIS Components. Hardware for GIS. GIS Software. Open Geospatial Consortium. ArcGIS. QGIS. GeoMedia. MapInfo. Idrisi. Manifold. Maptitude. AutoCAD MAP 3D. GRASS. MicroImages. ERDAS. Bentley Map. Smallworld. GIS in Organizations. Summary. The Structure of This Book. Data Models. Introduction. Coordinate Data. An Ellipsoidal Earth. Converting Arc to Surface Distances. Geographic to 3-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinates. Geographic and Magnetic North. Attribute Data and Types. Common Spatial Data Models. Vector Data Models. Polygon Inclusions and Boundary Generalization. Vector Topology. Vector Features, Tables, and Structures. Raster Data Models. Models and Cells. Raster Features and Attribute Tables. A Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models. Conversion Between Raster and Vector Models. Other Data Models. Triangulated Irregular Networks. Object Data Models. Three-Dimensional Data Models. Multiple Models. Data and File Structures. Binary and ASCII Numbers. Pointers and Indexes. Data Compression. Raster Pyramids. Common File Formats. Summary. Geodesy, Datums, Map Projections and Coordinate Systems. Introduction. Early Measurements. Specifying the Ellipsoid. The Geoid. Horizontal Datums. Datum Adjustment. Commonly Used Datums. Datum Transformations. Vertical Heights and Datums. Vdatum. Dynamic Heights. Map Projections and Coordinate Systems. Common Map Projections in GIS. The State Plane Coordinate System. Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System. National Coordinate Systems. Continental and Global Projections. Conversion Among Coordinate Systems. The Public Land Survey System. Summary. Maps, Data Entry, Editing, and Output. Building a GIS Database. Introduction. Map Types. Map Scale. Map Generalization. Map Boundaries and Spatial Data. Digitizing: Coordinate Capture. On-Screen Digitizing. Hardcopy Map Digitization. Characteristics of Manual Digitizing. The Digitizing Process. Digitizing Errors, Node and Line Snapping. Reshaping: Line Smoothing and Thinning. Scan Digitizing. Editing Geographic Data. Features Common to Several Layers. Coordinate Transformation. Control Points. The Affine Transformation. Other Coordinate Transformations. A Caution When Evaluating Transformations. Control Point Sources: Surveying. Control Points from Existing Maps and Digital Data. GNSS Control Points. Raster Geometry and Resampling. Map Projection vs. Transformation. Output: Maps, Digital Data, Metadata. Cartography and Map Design. Digital Data Output. Metadata: Data Documentation. Summary. Global Navigation Satellite Systems and Coordinate Surveying. Introduction. GNSS Basics. GNSS Broadcast Signals. Range Distances. Positional Uncertainty. Sources of Range Error. Satellite Geometry and Dilution of Precision. Differential Correction. Real Time Differential Positioning. WAAS and Satellite-based Corrections. Real Time Kinematic and VRS. Precise Point Positioning. A Caution on Datums. Optical and Laser Coordinate Surveying. GNSS Applications. Field Digitization. Field Digitizing Accuracy and Efficiency. Rangefinder Integration. GNSS Height Measurement. GNSS Tracking. Summary. Aerial and Satellite Images. Basic Principles. Aerial Images. Camera Aircraft, Formats and Systems. Digital Aerial Cameras. Film and Film Cameras. Geometric Quality of Aerial Images. Terrain and Tilt Distortion in Aerial Images. System Errors: Media, Lens, and Camera Distortion. Stereo Photographic Coverage. Geometric Correction of Aerial Images. Photo Interpretation. Satellite Images. Basic Principles of Satellite Image Scanners. High Resolution Satellite Systems. Mid Resolution Satellite Systems. Landsat. Resourcesat. RapidEye. Coarse-Resolution, Global Satellite Systems. MERIS. Other Systems. Satellite Images in GIS. Aerial or Satellite Images: Which to Use? Airborne LiDAR. Image Sources. Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Drones. Summary. Digital Data. Introduction. Map Services vs. Locally Storable Data. National and Global Digital Data. Global Digital Elevation Data. Digital Data for the United States. National Spatial Data Infrastructure. The U.S. National Map. Digital Elevation Models. Hydrologic Data. Digital Images. Legacy Aerial Photographs: SCS, DOQ, NHAP, and NAPP Photos. NAIP Digital Images. National Landcover Data. NASS CDL. National Wetlands Inventory. Digital Soils Data. Digital Floodplain Data. Climate, Geology, and Other Environmental Data. Digital Census Data. Summary. Tables. Introduction. Database Components and Characteristics. Physical, Logical, and Conceptual Structures. Relational Databases. Primary Operators. Hybrid Database Designs in GIS. Selection Based on Attributes. The Restrict Operator: Table Queries. Joining (or Relating) Tables. Primary Keys and Joins. Foreign Keys. Concatenated Keys. Multitable Joins. Normal Forms in Relational Databases. Keys and Functional Dependencies. The First and Second Normal Forms. The Third Normal Form. Summary. Basic Spatial Analysis. Introduction. Input, Operations, and Output. Scope. Selection and Classification. Set Algebra. Boolean Algebra. Spatial Selection Operations. Classification. The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. Dissolve. Proximity Functions and Buffering. Buffers. Raster Buffers. Vector Buffers. Overlay. Raster Overlay. Vector Overlay. Clip, Intersect, and Union: Special Cases of Overlay. A Problem in Vector Overlay. An Example Spatial Analysis. Network Analysis. Geocoding. Summary. Topics in Raster Analysis. Introduction. Map Algebra. Local Functions. Mathematical Functions. Logical Operations. Reclassification. Nested Functions. Overlay. Neighborhood, Zonal, and Global Functions. Zonal Functions. Cost Surfaces. Summary. Terrain Analysis. Introduction. Slope and Aspect. Hydrologic Functions. Profile Plots. Contour Lines. Viewsheds. Shaded Relief Maps. Terrain Analysis Software. Summary. Spatial Estimation: Interpolation, Prediction, Core Area. Introduction. Sampling. Sampling Patterns. Spatial Interpolation Methods. Nearest Neighbor Interpolation. Fixed Radius – Local Averaging. Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation. Splines. Spatial Prediction. Spatial Regression. Trend Surface and Simple Spatial Regression. Kriging and Co-Kriging. Interpolation Accuracy. Core Area Mapping. Mean Center and Mean Circle. Convex Hulls. Characteristic Hull Polygons. Kernel Mapping. Time-Geographic Density Estimation. Summary. Spatial Models and Modeling. Introduction. Cartographic Modeling. Designing a Cartographic Model. Weightings and Rankings. Rankings Within Criteria. Weighting Among Criteria. Cartographic Models: A Detailed Example. Simple Spatial Models.. Spatio-Temporal Models. Cell-Based Models. Agent-Based Modeling. Example 1: Process-Based Hydrologic Models. Example 2: LANDIS, a Stochastic Model. LANDIS Design Elements. Summary. Data Standards,Data Quality. Introduction. The Geospatial Competency Model. Spatial Data Standards. Data Accuracy. Documenting Spatial Data Accuracy. Positional Accuracy. A Standard Method for Measuring Positional Accuracy. Accuracy Calculations. Errors in Linear or Area Features. Attribute Accuracy. Error Propagation in Spatial Analysis. Summary. New Developments in GIS. Introduction. GNSS. Fixed and Mobile Three-Dimensional Mapping. 153 Datum Modernization. National Adjustment of 2011 (NA2011). Improved Remote Sensing. Cloud-Based GIS. Open GIS. Open Standards for GIS. Open Source GIS. A Hybrid Model. Summary. Appendixes. Glossary. Geographic Data Sources. Useful Conversions. Length. Area. Angles. Scale. State Plane Zones. Trigonometric Relationships. Answers to Selected Study Questions